In April 1882, the two friends, philosopher Paul Rée and the renowned German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, found themselves in the vibrant city of Rome, a place steeped in history and culture. During this visit, they encountered the intriguing figure of Lou Andreas-Salomé, a young Russian-born intellectual and writer making waves in the philosophical circles of Europe. Salomé was known for her sharp intellect, independent spirit, and unconventional views on love and relationships, which captivated many of her contemporaries.
As the trio spent time together, it is believed that Nietzsche, who had previously been somewhat reserved in matters of the heart, quickly developed deep feelings for Salomé. This emotional shift mirrored the earlier affections Rée had harboured for her, creating a complex dynamic among the three. Nietzsche, known for his intense and passionate nature, found himself drawn to Salomé’s brilliance and charisma, and it is thought that he saw in her a kindred spirit who could understand and appreciate his philosophical ideas.
In a moment of vulnerability and hope, Nietzsche confided in Rée, requesting that he propose to Salomé on his behalf. This request highlighted not only Nietzsche’s admiration for Salomé but also his struggle with expressing his feelings directly. Rée, who had once been enamoured with Salomé himself, found himself in a delicate position, caught between his friendship with Nietzsche and his own past affections.
However, when Rée approached Salomé with Nietzsche’s proposal, she responded with a firm yet gentle refusal. Salomé expressed her appreciation for Nietzsche’s friendship and intellect but made it clear that she was not interested in pursuing a romantic relationship with him. Her rejection was rooted in her belief in the importance of intellectual companionship over romantic entanglements, as well as her desire for personal freedom and autonomy.
This moment marked a significant turning point in the relationships among the three individuals. While Nietzsche’s feelings for Salomé remained unrequited, the experience deepened the philosophical discussions and emotional complexities that characterized their interactions. Salomé’s decision not only affected Nietzsche and Rée but also shaped her own path as a thinker and writer, as she continued to navigate the intricacies of love, friendship, and intellectual collaboration in a society that often sought to confine women to traditional roles. The encounter in Rome thus became a pivotal chapter in the lives of these three influential figures, intertwining their fates in ways that would resonate throughout their subsequent works and relationships.
Penari
─untuk Luíza Gustavovna Salomé
Pria itu beteriak kepada matahari
“kehidupan adalah perselisihan rasa dan rasa”
sembari tersenyum, melirik pujaan hati
mata Venus yang memesona dan membutakan
kekuatan hidup yang memabukkan
ia terus mencari, sesosok Tuhan yang menari
di Turin ia meloncat-loncat girang, menari tanpa pakaian
mengunjungi lorong-lorong rahasia, lantai dansa
ia menjadi seperti angin, bergegas keluar dari gua-gua
menuju pipa-pipa, laut gementar di bawah langkahnya
siapa gerangan membunuh singa-singa betina?
roh-roh baik dan sulit diatur datang seperti badai, terpujilah
mereka:
mereka yang terlahir tak serta merta dapat terbang
Debates on colour terminology and its definitions from a (meta)lexicographic perspective remain limited, highlighting a significant gap in the field of lexicography. The documentation and definition of colours present both intriguing and complex challenges within this domain, as colours are not merely visual phenomena but also carry deep cultural meanings and associations. Certain colours hold substantial cultural significance, serving as keywords that reflect the rich lexicon of a culture and influence the cognitive, emotional, and communicative practices of its speakers. This interplay between colour and culture underscores the importance of understanding how colour terms are defined and utilized within different linguistic contexts.
To analyze and assess the current and potential lexicographic interpretations of colours in the Indonesian language will always be intriguing. This task is both timely and necessary given the evolving nature of language and cultural expression. By examining the lexicographic treatment of colour terms, people seek to identify patterns that could enhance the understanding of colour-related meanings in the online Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI), Indonesia’s primary dictionary. The KBBI may serve as a crucial resource for language users, and its definitions can significantly shape how colour concepts are perceived and understood within society.
To achieve these objectives, two empirical procedures can be undertaken. The first procedure focused on the “specialized” and “unspecialized” definitions of colour terms in the online KBBI, analyzing how these definitions cater to different audiences and contexts. The second procedure examined “foreign” definitions in the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (MWOD), providing a comparative perspective on how colour terminology is treated in English lexicography. This comparative analysis is essential for understanding the broader implications of colour terminology across languages and cultures.
The result of the investigation reveals three key insights. First, the definitions of colour terms in both the online KBBI and MWOD align with an appropriate framework for organizing and conceptualizing semantic primes. This alignment establishes connections between senses and the cultural contexts of Indonesian and English, suggesting that the definitions are crafted with consideration for “unspecialized” readers who may not have extensive background knowledge in colour theory or cultural nuances. This accessibility is crucial for fostering a broader understanding of colour terminology among the general public.
Second, while the existing definitions provide a solid foundation, there is a notable need for innovative approaches to colour explication. This is particularly important in exploring non-existent subsenses—meanings that may not be explicitly defined but are nonetheless relevant to users’ understanding of colour. By addressing these gaps, lexicographers can better meet the expectations of dictionary users, providing them with a more detailed explanation and it can assist dictionary readers in living up to their expectations.
When it comes to understanding colours, navigating the distinction between specialized terminology and more general language can be quite complex. As Moon (1987: 175-176) articulates, there exists a nuanced interplay between what we might consider “specialist” meanings—those that are specific to certain fields or disciplines—and “general” meanings, which are more commonly employed in everyday conversation. This distinction is particularly relevant in the context of colour, where the implications of a term can vary significantly depending on the context in which it is used.
Specialized terms often arise within specific domains such as art, science, or design, where precision and clarity are paramount. For instance, in the realm of colour theory, professionals might refer to colours using technical definitions that encompass their wavelengths, saturation, and brightness. These definitions are crucial for tasks that require exactness, such as colour mixing in painting or calibrating displays in digital media. However, this level of specificity can be alienating or confusing to those outside these fields, as it may not resonate with their everyday experiences or understanding of colour.
On the other hand, general words are those that people use in their daily lives, often devoid of the technical jargon that specialists might employ. Krista William (2017: 40) provides a compelling illustration of this distinction through the example of a child requesting a red train. In this scenario, the child is not preoccupied with the scientific definition of red, which describes it as “the hue of the long wave end of the visible spectrum, evoked in the human observer by radiant energy with wavelengths of approximately 630-750 nanometers.” Instead, the child’s understanding of red is rooted in a practical, tangible context—they simply want a toy that resembles a tomato. This highlights how the meaning of a word can be shaped by its application in real-life situations, contrasting sharply with the more rigid definitions that specialists might use.
Furthermore, the complexity of defining specialized terms becomes even more pronounced when these terms possess multiple meanings or when they overlap with everyday language. For example, the term “red” can refer not only to a specific colour but also to various shades and tones, each with its connotations and uses. This multiplicity can lead to confusion, as individuals may interpret the term differently based on their background, knowledge, and context. Thus, the challenge lies in bridging the gap between the precise, often technical definitions favoured by experts and the more fluid, context-dependent meanings that permeate everyday language.
Explication
The situation surrounding the concept of colour is becoming increasingly intricate and nuanced. Wierzbicka (2008) presents a compelling argument that challenges the notion of universal colour concepts in both languages and thought. She posits that rather than adhering to a traditional understanding of colour, which often assumes a set of universally recognized categories, we should embrace a more complex framework of visual semantics. This perspective complicates the task of defining colour terms using the Natural Semantics Metalanguage (NSM), as NSM does not recognize colours as universal concepts and does not categorize them as semantic primes. Consequently, when attempting to define color terms, one might inadvertently overlook the NSM framework, given its treatment of colour as a non-fundamental element in the structure of meaning.
To address this challenge, I propose an innovative approach that seeks to integrate the principles of NSM with Aristotle’s philosophical concepts of genus and differentia. Aristotle’s method of definition, which involves identifying a genus (or family) to which a term belongs and then specifying its differentia (the characteristics that distinguish it from other members of that genus), offers a valuable framework for redefining colour terms. By employing this dual approach, we can create definitions that not only acknowledge the shared characteristics of colour terms within a broader category but also accommodate the unique attributes that may not fit neatly into established classifications.
This integration means that all definitions that share the same genus will be recognized as part of that overarching group, while simultaneously allowing for the inclusion of definitions that may diverge from the conventional genus. This approach draws upon the foundational primes and categories articulated by Wierzbicka and Goddard (2010), enabling a more comprehensive understanding of colour that respects both the complexity of visual perception and the linguistic diversity surrounding colour terminology. By merging these frameworks, we can develop a richer, more nuanced semantic model that reflects the intricacies of how colour is conceptualized and communicated across different languages and cultures.
Using the proposed model of colour’s semantic primes from Wierzbicka and Goddard (2010), I will expand on the explanations for the term “red” as follows: 1. For the term red (with a more specific meaning):
a. A colour [SUBSTANTIVE] whose hue [SUBSTANTIVE] is similar [RELATIONAL SUBSTANTIVES] to the colour [SUBSTANTIVE] of [COMPARISON] x longwave [SUBSTANTIVE] and y spectrum [SUBSTANTIVE]. This definition emphasizes that “red” is a specific colour that can be identified by its position in the visible light spectrum, particularly at longer wavelengths. It is often associated with vivid and intense examples, such as the colour of blood or the deep red of a ruby. This specificity helps to distinguish “red” from other colours by its unique spectral properties. 2. For red (in a general sense):
b. A colour [SUBSTANTIVE] whose hue [SUBSTANTIVE] is similar [RELATIONAL SUBSTANTIVES] to that of blood or a ruby [M]. This general definition captures the essence of “red” by relating it to familiar objects that people can easily visualize, such as blood and rubies. It highlights people’s common associations with the colour, making it relatable and understandable.
c. Having [MENTAL PREDICATES] an exact [SIMILARITY] to the colour [SUBSTANTIVE] of [COMPARISON] blood or a ruby [M]. This explanation suggests that when we think of “red,” we often conjure images of specific items, like red clothing or accessories. The mental association with these objects reinforces our understanding of what “red” looks like and how it can be applied in various contexts.
d. One [SUBSTANTIVE] that is a colour [SUBSTANTIVE] like [COMPARISON] blood or a ruby [M]. This definition broadens the concept of “red” to include variations, such as shades that are red or reddish. It acknowledges that “red” can manifest in different forms, such as the colour of red wine, which may not be pure red but still falls within the red spectrum. A shade of red that’s a shade of colour like the deep hue of blood or a ruby gemstone one that’s red or reddish: think of a glass of RED WINE
e. the colour resembling the vividness of blood or a ruby gemstone represents the emotion of anger or embarrassment getting flushed, especially when angry or embarrassed, can lead to a visible change in complexion
f. having skin that changes to a colour like the vibrant tone of blood or a ruby having skin that turns red due to inflammation, such as in cases of allergic reactions or sunburn
g. the colour of the striking shade of blood or a ruby gemstone represents the political ideology of the communist party often referred to as the red party
h. the colour of the bold hue of blood or a ruby gemstone represents the identity of a special force or brigade commonly known as the red brigade
i. having skin that’s a colour similar to the metallic sheen of that of a chopper offensive: having skin with a coppery tint, which can be perceived as derogatory or insensitive
j. having hair or fur that’s a colour similar to the gradient between the colour of auburn and the colour of chestnut of hair, fur, etc.: being in the colour range that reflects warm, rich tones often associated with autumn leaves
An explication for red word (unspecialized sense) of the online KBBI senses:
warna “colour” [SUBSTANTIVE] dasar “primary” that [DETERMINER] is similar to [SIMILARITY] that of [COMPARISON] blood [M]
warna dasar yang serupa dengan warna darah “a basic colour that is similar to the colour of blood”
mengandung “having” [MENTAL PREDICATES] warna “colour” [SUBSTANTIVE] that [DETERMINER] is similar to [SIMILARITY] that of [COMPARISON] blood [M]
mengandung atau memperlihatkan warna yang serupa dengan merah
“having a colour similar to that of blood”
An explication for red word (unspecialized sense) based on Indonesian language context:
colour [SUBSTANTIVE] that of [COMPARISON] blood or of the ruby [M] symbolizes [ACTION] unfavourable achievement [M]
rapor merah (unfavourable achievement)
mereka memberikan rapor merah terhadap pemerintah “they claim that the government has made unfavourable achievement (news.detik.com › berita › d-5780334)
colour [SUBSTANTIVE] that of [COMPARISON] blood [M] symbolizes [ACTION] holiday [M]
setidaknya ada dua tanggal merah yang ada di bulan Juli 2022 “at least there are two holidays in July 2022” (www.suara.com › news › 2022/06/27)
colour [SUBSTANTIVE] that of [COMPARISON] blood [M] symbolizes [ACTION] signal to stop [M]
Certain explanations from c to k show meanings linked to various words like rapor “report,” tanggal “date,” lampu “lamp,” partai “(political) party,” bayi “baby,” and kartu “card.” These can be organized in a way that reveals meanings such as “unfavourable achievement, holiday, signal to stop, warning, danger, communist party, newborn, ejection from the match,” which will give more context about the colour red.
The way we define colour through words and terms really hinges on who’s using them. As Bejoint pointed out, the audience has shifted over time, moving from a narrow, upper-class, educated group to a more diverse crowd with varying education and economic backgrounds. Identifying the traits of these target users, as Robert Lew noted in 2015, is crucial during the planning phase. This helps in creating dictionaries that don’t yet exist by offering the kind of lexicographic info users are likely to need, all while considering their skill levels. However, as culture evolves, so does the typical user, as Bejoint mentioned in 1994. The typical user has transformed alongside cultural shifts. Interest in classical history and literature is giving way to a focus on science and technology. Dictionaries are a reflection of these societal changes (Béjoint 1994: 112).
This aligns with the intended users of the online KBBI, which was designed as a general-purpose dictionary prioritizing unspecialized definitions. Over time, both the online KBBI and the MWOD have become key references in academic writing. Therefore, defining colours in both specialized and unspecialized ways is a solid option since both dictionaries include scientific terms as guides (like geophysics, chemistry, petrology, philosophy, etc.), making both types of definitions valuable for users.
References
Moon, R.1987. Monosemous Words and the Dictionary. Cowie, A.P. (Ed.) 1987. The Dictionary and the Language Learner. Papers from the EURALEX Seminar at the University of Leeds, 1–3 April 1985. Lexicographica Series Maior: 173-182. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Williams, Krista. 2017. Colours in French, American and British Dictionaries
Goddard, Cliff & Anna Wierzbicka. 2002. Semantic primes and universal grammar. In Cliff Goddard & Anna Wierzbicka (eds.), Meaning and universal grammar – Theory andempirical findings, Vol I, 41–85. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Parry, William Thomas; Hacker, Edward A. (1991). Aristotelian Logic. G – Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 86. ISBN9780791406892. Retrieved 8 Feb 2019
Wierzbicka, Anna. 2008. “Why there are no ‘colour universals’ in language and
thought?” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S.) 14, 407-425. Royal Anthropological Institute 2008
Robert Lew, Robert. 2015. Dictionaries and Their Users. International Handbook of Modern Lexis and Lexicography. DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-45369-4_11-1
pale red: merah dadu
pastel red: merah pucat
flesh red: merah pucat merah daging ,
blood red: merah darah ,
sanguine: merah darah merah delima
purplish pink: merah delima/merah genting
tile red: merah genting/merah hati
liver brown: merah hati/merah insang/merah jadam
reddish violet: merah jadam/merah jambu
pink: merah jambu
rosy pink: merah jambu/merah kesumba
pastel pink: merah kesumba/merah danau
lake red: merah danau/merah lembayung
magenta: merah lembayung
red purple: merah lembayung/merah lombok
capsicum red: merah lada/merah cabai
paprica red: merah lada/merah cabai/merah manggis
maroon: merah manggis
violet brown: merah ungu merah marak
scarlet: merah marak merah mawar
rose red: merah mawar
madder red: merah mengkudu/merah merang/merah merjan ,
Kalangkangwalungan 